The general articles on music in the Encyclopaedia Britannica provide an illuminative discussion of broad artistic principles which cannot fail to stimulate the musical sense and perception of the professional or the amateur. The technical and critical treatment of the subject was directed by Donald F. Tovey, composer, pianist, and author of Essays in Musical Analysis; and no one could be better fitted for the work of organizing this department of the Britannica. He was assisted by W. H. Hadow, the well-known musical writer and composer, J. A. Fuller Maitland, musical critic of The Times (London), E. J. Dent, author of Alessandro Scarlatti and His Works, R. H. Legge, principal musical critic on the Daily Telegraph (London), and others; and the section treating of musical instruments was organized and contributed by Miss Kathleen Schlesinger, the greatest living authority on the subject.

In mapping out courses of reading the subject is divided into sections as follows: (1) Evolution, (2) Theory, (3) Musical Forms, (4) Musical Instruments.

The article Music (Vol. 19, p. 72), by Donald Tovey, which contains a masterly account of the development of the art from the earliest time down to the present day, provides the reader with just that general survey which enables him to see the whole picture in perspective. This he will naturally turn to first, but to fill out the picture there are a number of other articles which he will wish to read. In the following scheme the evolution of the art has been sketched in skeleton, so that the student may have before him a guide to the study of any period in which he is specially interested. This outline serves to show how very thoroughly the ground is covered in the new Encyclopaedia Britannica.

(1) EVOLUTION OF MUSIC

Subject for Reading	Article
PRE-HARMONIC STAGE
Primitive Music.	Music (Vol. 19, p. 72).
	Song (Vol. 25, p. 406).
Musical sense first awakened by the rhythm of the dance.	Dance (Vol. 7, p. 795); see also Rhythm (Vol. 23, p. 278).
Legendary account of the invention of music by a Judean.	David (Vol. 7, p. 859).
Hebrew music: setting of the Psalms.	Psalms, Book of (Vol. 22, p. 539 and p. 536).
Suggested Jewish origin of some Gregorian Tunes.	Plain Song (Vol. 21, p. 706).
Dawn of modern music in Greece. Connection of music with lyric poetry. Terpander of Lesbos (660 B.C.) adds 3 strings to the 4–stringed lyre, giving compass of octave.	Greek Literature (Vol. 12, p. 509).
Characteristics of Greek music. Pythagoras (6th century, B.C.) fixes the intervals of the harmonic series and of the diatonic scale.	Music (Vol. 19, p. 73); see also Pythagoras (Vol. 22, p. 699).
The Greek scale shows a latent harmonic sense, though octaves only allowed.	Lyre (Vol. 17, p. 178); see also Orchestra (Vol. 20, p. 168); Aulos (Vol. 2, p. 917); Cithara (Vol. 6, p. 395).
	Harmony (Vol. 13, p. 1).
Pitch in Greek music.	Pitch, Musical (Vol. 21, p. 661).
Other primitive systems without influence on modern music.	China, Literature (Vol. 6, p. 228 and p. 215).
Chinese adopted Pythagorean system; a lost art recovered in 3rd century, A.D.
Indian music—Scale of 22 intervals.	Sanskrit (Vol. 24, p. 181).
Siamese music: 7 tone scale; orchestras perform in unison.	Siam (Vol. 25, p. 5).
The music of the North American Indian.	Indians, North American (Vol. 14, p. 470).

Biographies of musicians of the primitive, non-harmonic, period in the Britannica are: Terpander, 7th century B.C.; Pythagoras, 6th century B.C.; Aristoxenus, 4th century; Alypius, 3rd century B.C.; Aristides, Quintilianus, 3rd century.

HARMONIC ORIGINS

The Greeks found that by doubling the melody at the octave a greater sonority resulted. It was a great step from this to the discovery that two separate tunes could be combined which should be satisfying to the ear. With this discovery modern harmony may be said to have begun.

Subject	Article
Awakening of the harmonic sense.	Music (Vol. 19, p. 74); Harmony (Vol. 13, p. 1).
The Grecian modes modified into the ecclesiastical by Ambrose in the 4th century.	Plain Song (Vol. 21, p. 705); see also Ambrose (Vol. 1, p. 798), and Gregory (Vol. 12, p. 567).
Following Hucbald, “beatus Guido inventor musicae” in the 11th century, invents names for the notes and improves system of notation.	Guido of Arezzo (Vol. 12, p. 687); see also Hucbald (Vol. 13, p. 847).
The Troubadour becomes a learned musician in the 13th century.	Adam de la Hale, 13th century (Vol. 1, p. 171); Machaut (Vol. 17, p. 233).
After Dunstable of England and Dufay of the Netherlands had invented counterpoint comes the first great composer, heralding the advent of the “Golden Age.”	Des Prés, Josquin (Vol. 8, p. 103); see also Binchois, Egidius (Vol. 3, p. 948).

THE GOLDEN AGE

The First Great ClimaxComposers were not long content with the simple combination of two tunes. They soon found that three tunes so treated afforded a yet richer texture, and the extension to the elaborate polyphony of 16th century choral music was an inevitable step. An elaborate system of prohibitions, based on the limitations of the human voice, and the difficulty of attacking certain intervals, shackled the composer at every turn and formed the basis of theories of counterpoint which endured almost to our time. Despite the restrictions imposed by their rules, the structure raised by the great composers of the first half of the 16th century was of amazing richness and complexity.

Subject of Reading	Article
The Riot of Choral Polyphony in the 16th century.	Music, The Golden Age (Vol. 19, p. 75); see also Harmony (Vol. 13, p. 2); Instrumentation, Vocal Styles of 16th Century (Vol. 14, p. 651).
Musical forms brought to great perfection in this period those in which texture holds first place.	Contrapuntal Forms, Canonic Forms and Devices, Counterpoint on a Canto Fermo (Vol. 7, p. 42); see also Mass, Polyphonic Masses (Vol. 17, p. 849); Madrigal (Vol. 17, p. 295); Motet (Vol. 18, p. 905).
Leaders of musical thought in the “Golden Age.”	Lasso, Orlando (Vol. 16, p. 237); Tallis, T. (Vol. 26, p. 377); Palestrina (Vol. 20, p. 627).

Composer of the Golden AgeComposers of the “Golden Age,” following the polyphonic tradition of the early 16th century, biographies of whom appear in the Britannica, are: Netherlandish: Arcadelt, Jacob, 1514–1556; Lasso, Orlando, c. 1530–1594; German: Finck, Hermann, 1527–1558; Eccard, Johann, 1553–1611; Aichinger, Gregor, leader of Reformation church music, c. 1565–1628; French: Goudimel, C., c. 1510–1572; English: Wilbye, John, 16th century, famous for his madrigals; Merbeck, John, d. 1585; Bennett, John, d.c. 1614; Bateson, T., d. 1630, a composer of madrigals; Tallis, T., c. 1515–1585, “father of English cathedral music”; Farrant, R., c. 1530–1581; Byrd, Wm., 1543–1623; Morley, T., 1557–1603; Gibbons, Orlando, 1583–1625; Italian: Animuccia, Giovanni, c. 1490–1571; Zarlino, Gioseffo, 1517–1590, fixed the diatonic scale as now accepted; Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da, 1526–1594; Banchiere, Adriano, c. 1557–1634, fought against monodist revolt—see below; Anerio (brothers), c. 1560–1620; Artusi, G. M., 16th century, opposed Monteverdi’s innovations—see below; Spanish: Victoria, Tommasso L. da, c. 1540–1613.

The last word in polyphony seemed to have been said by such masters as Orlando Lasso, and Palestrina, and a change into new paths was inevitable. Moreover, men’s minds were craving something more directly stimulating than the passionless web of ecclesiastical polyphony, which was the glory of the 16th century. Freedom was sought from the conventions of modal counterpoint. The monodist revolt was the result.

Subject	Article
Revolt against the overelaboration of texture.	Music, The Monodic Revolution (Vol. 19, p. 76); Harmony, Modern Harmony (Vol. 13, p. 4).
Prominence given to solo part rather than to choral effect leads to development of the aria.	Song (Vol. 25, p. 406); Aria (Vol. 2, p. 489).
The leader in the new paths, the pioneer of modern harmony.	Monteverde, Claudio (Vol. 18, p. 778).
The first oratorio (1600).	Oratorio (Vol. 20, p. 161); see also Cavaliere, Emilio del (Vol. 5, p. 563).
The first opera (1600).	Opera (Vol. 20, p. 121); see also Peri, Jacopo (Vol. 21, p. 144).
The monodic impulse synchronizes with the startling development of the violin family by the Cremona makers.	Violin (Vol. 28, p. 103); see also Amati (Vol. 1, p. 783); Guarnieri (Vol. 12, p. 660); Stradivari (Vol. 25, p. 977).

Famous MonodistsAmong distinguished composers of this period and school are: English: Bull, John, c. 1562–1628; Ford, Thomas, b. 1580; Lawes, Henry, 1595–1662; Italian: Cavaliere, E. del, c. 1550–1602; Peri, Jacopo, b. 1561; Gabriele, Giovanni, 1557–c. 1612, early experimenter in chromatic harmony; Caccini, Giulio, 1558–1615; Monteverde, Claudio, 1567–1643; Allegri, Gregorio, c. 1570–1652; Frescobaldi, Girolamo, 1583–1644, famous also as a teacher; Agostino, P., 1593–1639; Cavalli, F., 1596–1676, popularized opera; Carissimi, G., c. 1604–1674, popularized oratorio; Rossi, Luigi de. All the above have separate articles assigned to them in the Britannica.

THE 17th CENTURY AND AFTER

The Second Great ClimaxThose who revolted from the traditions of the polyphonic school went, as was inevitable, too far. A reaction was equally inevitable, for the language of the new music was unformed and was in danger of being stereotyped into the emptiest of formulas. The welding of the old and new ideas was all that was needed to prepare the way for the colossal achievement of a Bach or a Beethoven. It was a busy period when the rules of counterpoint were reviewed and revised, when theories of harmony as a distinct science took shape. But, save for the work of such men as Purcell, the Englishman (Vol. 22, p. 658), born 100 years before his time, the 17th century was mainly one of preparation. The next great climax came in the first half of the 18th century.

Subject	Article
The renascence of texture, the welding of polyphony and monody.	Music (Vol. 19, p. 77); Harmony (Vol. 13, p. 4).
Publication in 1715 of the famous Gradus ad Parnassum, the first complete theory of counterpoint.	Fux, Johann Joseph (Vol. 11, p. 375).
The first systematic theory of harmony published in 1722.	Rameau, J. P. (Vol. 22, p. 874).
The second great climax in music.	Music, Bach and Handel (Vol. 19, p. 78).
The achievement of Johann Sebastian Bach.	Bach, J. S. (Vol. 3, p. 124); see also Contrapuntal Forms (Vol. 7, p. 41); Concerto (Vol. 6, p. 825); Overture (Vol. 20, p. 384); Suite (Vol. 26, p. 51); Oratorio (Vol. 20, p. 161); Cantata (Vol. 5, p. 209); Mass, Lutheran Masses (Vol. 17, p. 850); Variations (Vol. 27, p. 912); Instrumentation, Decoration and Orchestral Schemes (Vol. 14, p. 651 and p. 655).

17th and 18th Century ComposersComposers of the period who have separate notices in the Britannica are: Italian: Cesti, M. A., c. 1620–1669; Colonna, Giovanni P., c. 1637–1695; Pasquini, B., 1637–1710; Stradella, Alessandro, 1645–1682; Corelli, Arcangelo, 1653–1713, first classic of the violin; Steffani, A., 1653–1728; Scarlatti, Alessandro, 1659–1725, largely created language of modern music; Pitoni, G. O., 1657–1743; Lotti, Antonio, c. 1667–1740; Clari, G. C. M., c. 1669–1745; Bononcini, G. B., c. 1672–1750; Albinoni, T., c. 1674–1745; Astorga, Emanuele d’, 1681–1736; Durante, Francesco, 1684–1755; Marcello, B., 1686–1739; Vinci, Leonardo, 1690–1730; Leo, Leonardo, 1694–1744; Logroscino, Nicola, c. 1700–1763; Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista, 1710–1736; Alberti, Domenico, c. 1710–1740; French: Cambert, R., 1628–1677; Lully, Jean-Baptiste, c. 1623–1687, inventor of the classical French opera style; English: Locke, Matthew, c. 1630–1677; Blow, John, 1648–1708; Purcell, Henry, 1658–1695; Croft, William, 1678–1727; Handel, George Frederick, 1685–1759; Greene, Maurice, 1695–1755; German: Bach, Johann Sebastian, 1685–1750; Hasse, Johann A., 1699–1783; Eberlin, J. E., 1702–1762.

THE RISE OF THE SONATA

The Third Great ClimaxBach, like Palestrina, seemed to have closed a period; and for nearly a hundred years after his death his influence on the course of musical development was astonishingly small. Again men sought new channels of expression and found them in instrumental music. But a structure less loosely knit than the suite form was needed if the new ideas were to be adequately stated, and the sonata grew into being, a form which has sufficed to this day as a medium for the noblest thoughts of the great composers. The 18th century saw, too, the reform of the opera by Gluck, a great development of orchestral resources, and the rise of the string quartette in chamber music.

Subject	Article
The new language: evolution of the sonata from the suite.	Music (Vol. 19, p. 79); Sonata, Sonata Style (Vol. 25, p. 394); see also Scarletti, Dominico (Vol. 24, p. 302); and Bach, K. P. E. (Vol. 3, p. 130).
Reform of the opera.	Opera (Vol. 20, p. 123); see also Gluck (Vol. 12, p. 138); Piccinni (Vol. 21, p. 579); Mozart (Vol. 18, p. 951).
The rise of the symphony and the string quartette, development of the sonata.	Music, The Symphonic Classes (Vol. 19, p. 78); Sonata Forms (Vol. 25, p. 395); Symphony (Vol. 26, p. 290); see also Haydn (Vol. 13, p. 110).
The growth of the orchestra.	Instrumentation, Symphonic (Vol. 14, p. 652); see also Haydn (Vol. 13, p. 110).
The third great climax. The perfection of the sonata form.	Beethoven, L. von (Vol. 3, p. 644); see also Sonata Forms (Vol. 25, p. 397); Instrumentation (Vol. 14, p. 653); Variations (Vol. 27, p. 913); Mass (Vol. 17, p. 850).

Biographies of the following composers of the period appear in the Britannica: German and Austrian: Bach, Karl Philipp Emanuel, 1714–1788; Gluck, C. W., 1714–1787; Hiller, J. A., 1728–1804; Haydn, Franz Joseph, 1732–1809; Dittersdorf, Karl Ditters von, 1739–1799; Winter, P., c. 1755–1825; Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 1756–1791; Himmel, F. H., 1765–1814; Beethoven, Ludwig van, 1770–1827; French: Gossec, F. J., 1734–1829; Gretry, A. E. M., 1741–1813; Mehul, Etienne H., 1763–1817; Lesueur, Jean François, c. 1763–1837; Boieldieu, F. A., 1775–1834; English: Arne, T. A., 1710–1778, preserved English tradition in face of Handelian obsession; Boyce, William, 1710–1779; Jackson, W., 1730–1803; Battishill, J., 1738–1801; Arnold, S., 1740–1802; Dibdin, C., 1745–1814; Shield, W., 1748–1829; Storace, S., 1763–1796; Attwood, T., 1765–1838; Wesley, Samuel, 1766–1837, father of modern organ playing; Italian: Scarlatti, Domenico, 1685–1757; Martini, G. B., 1706–1784; Galuppi, Baldassare, 1706–1785; Jommelli, N., 1714–1774; Guglielmi, P., 1727–1804; Piccinni, N., 1728–1800; Sarti, Giuseppe, 1729–1802; Sacchini, A. M. G., 1734–1786; Paisiello, G., 1741–1816; Boccherini, Luigi, 1743–1805, last real master of suite form; Cimarosa, D., 1749–1801; Salieri, A., 1750–1825; Cherubini, 1760–1842; Paer, F., 1771–1839.

NEW PATHS

Early in the 19th century the wave of romanticism broke over Europe. The effect on music was not nearly so violent as was the monodic revolt of the 16th–17th centuries, since the resources and technique of the art had now been developed; but it was nevertheless striking and showed itself in several directions, but mainly in two: lyrical and dramatic. The short compositions of Field, Schumann, and Chopin, and the development of the art song are instances of the former; the whole range of programme music, of which the symphonic poem is the prototype, is evidence of the latter; while in opera the reforms started by Gluck were carried to their logical conclusion by Wagner. Two other movements are also significant; the return to Bach and a recognition of his amazing modernity, and the pronounced revival of national characteristics in music, as shown particularly in the new English, Russian, and Bohemian Schools.

Subject	Article
The Romantic Period.	Music, From Beethoven to Wagner (Vol. 19, p. 79).
The Romantic in opera.	Weber, Carl Maria F. E. von (Vol. 28, p. 455); Song (Vol. 25, p. 409).
The first great lyrical song writer.	Schubert, Franz Peter (Vol. 24, p. 379); Song (Vol. 25, p. 409).
The Romantic in the symphony.	Programme Music (Vol. 22, p. 424); see also Berlioz, Hector (Vol. 3, p. 791).
The rediscovery of Bach.	Bach, J. S. (Vol. 2, p. 124); Mendelssohn (Vol. 18, pp. 121–124).
Development of song forms.	Song (Vol. 25, p. 410); see also Schumann, Robert (Vol. 24, p. 384); Wolf, Hugo (Vol. 28, p. 771); Brahms, J. (Vol. 4, p. 390).
Discontent with the sonata form.	Symphonic Poem (Vol. 26, p. 289); Liszt, F. (Vol. 16, p. 780).
Gluck’s idea realised; union of music	Music (Vol. 19, p. 80); Operas, Leit-Motif with drama. (Vol. 20, p. 125); Wagner, W. Richard (Vol. 28, p. 236).
The last of the royal line of German composers shows vitality of the sonata form.	Brahms, Johannes (Vol. 4, p. 389); Sonata Forms, Sonata since Beethoven (Vol. 25, p. 398).
Modern Tendencies.	Music (Vol. 19, p. 82); see also Strauss, Richard (Vol. 25, p. 1003); Debussy, Achille (Vol. 7, p. 906).

Composers of this period, who have had separate articles assigned to them in the Britannica, follow: the growth of national schools will be noted.

19th Century ComposersGerman and Austrian: Gansbacher, J. B., 1778–1844; Kreutzer, K., 1780–1849; Spohr, Ludwig, 1784–1859; Weber, Carl Maria F. E. von, 1786–1886; Meyerbeer, G., 1791–1863; Hauptmann, M., 1792–1868; Löwe, J. K. G., 1796–1869; Schubert, Franz Peter, 1797–1828; Lortzing, G. A., 1801–1851; Strauss, Johann, 1804–1849, king of valse composers; Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, J. L. F., 1809–1847; Nicolai, Otto, 1810–1849; Schumann, Robert Alexander, 1810–1856; Hiller, F., 1811–1885; Wagner, Richard, 1813–1883; Heller, Stephen, 1815–1888; Franz, Robert, 1815–1892, song composer; Abt, Franz, 1819–1885, art folk-song; Suppe, F. von, 1820–1895; Raff, J. J., 1822–1882; Cornelius, Carl August Peter, 1824–1874, song writer; Bruckner, Anton, 1824–1896, Wagnerian symphonist; Reinecke, C. H. C., 1824–1910; Lassen, Eduard, 1830–1904; Joachim, Joseph, 1831–1907; Brahms, Johannes, 1833–1897; Bruch, Max, b. 1838; Rheinberger, J. G., 1839–1901; Goetz, Hermann, 1840–1876; Neszler, V., 1841–1890: Humperdinck, E., b. 1854; Wolf, Hugo, 1860–1903; Strauss, Richard, b. 1864.

French: Auber, D. F. E., 1782–1871; Herold, L. J. F., 1791–1833; Halevy, J. F. F. E., 1799–1862; Berlioz, Hector, 1803–1869; David, F., 1810–1876; Thomas, C. L. Ambroise, 1811–1896; Gounod, C. F., 1818–1893; Offenbach, J., 1819–1880; Franck, Cesar, 1822–1890, founder of Modern French School; Lalo, E., 1823–1892; Reyer, E., b. 1823; Lecocq, A. C., b. 1832; Benoit, P. L. L., 1834–1901; Saint-Saëns, Charles Camille, b. 1835; Dubois, F. C. T., b. 1837; Bizet, Georges, 1838–1875; Joncieres, V., 1839–1903; Chabrier, A. E., 1841–1894; Audran, E., 1842–1901; Massenet, J. E. F., 1842–1912; Faure, Gabriel, b., 1845; Widor, Charles Marie, b. 1845; Godard, Benjamin L. P., 1849–1895; Planquette, R., b. 1850; D’Indy,. P. M. T. V., b. 1851; Messager, A. C. P., b. 1853; Bruneau, Alfred, b. 1857; Chaminade, Cécile, b. 1861; Bemberg, Herman, b. 1861; Debussy, Claude Achilles, b. 1862.

Belgian: The violinist Ysaye, b. 1858.

Italian: Spontani, G. L. P., 1774–1851; Rossini, G. A., 1792–1868; Donizetti, G., 1798–1848; Bellini, V., 1801–1835; Verdi, Giuseppe, 1813–1901; Ponchielli, Amilcare, 1834–1886, on whom have modelled themselves, Mascagni, Leoncavallo, etc.; Boito, Arrigo, b. 1842; Sgambati, G., b. 1843; Leoncavallo, R., b. 1858; Puccini, G., b. 1858; Mascagni, P., b. 1863.

British: Horsley, Wm., 1774–1858; Smart, Sir George T., 1776–1867; Bishop, Sir H. R., 1786–1855; Pearsall, R. L. de, 1795–1856; Field, John, 1782–1837, inventor of the nocturne; Goss, Sir John, 1800–1880; Hatton, J. L., 1800–1886; Barnett, J., 1802–1890; Benedict, Sir Julius, 1804–1885; Balfe, M. W., 1808–1870; Wesley, S. S., 1810–1876; Hullah, John P., 1812–1884; Macfarren, Sir G. A., 1813–1887; Wallace, Wm. V., 1814–1865; Pierson, H. H., 1815–1873; Bennett, Sir Wm. Sterndale, 1816–1875; Ouseley, Sir F. A. G., 1825–1889; Bache, F. E., 1833–1858; Clay, F., 1838–1889; Barnby, Sir J., 1838–1896; Stainer, Sir John, 1840–1901; Sullivan, Sir Arthur S., 1842–1900; Cellier, Alfred, 1844–1891; Mackenzie, Sir A. C., b. 1847; Parry, Sir C. Hubert H., b. 1848, on whom fell the mantle of Purcell; Thomas, Arthur Goring, 1850–1892; Cowen, F. J., b. 1852; Stanford, Sir Charles Villiers, b. 1852; Elgar, Sir Edward, b. 1857; MacCunn, Hamish, b. 1868.

Bohemian: Smetana, F., 1824–1884, founder of modern Bohemian School; Dvořák, Anton, 1841–1904.

Hungarian: Gung’l, Josef, 1810–1889; Liszt, Franz, 1811–1886; Goldmark, Karl, b. 1832; Paderewski, I. J., b. 1860.

Polish: Chopin, Frederic François, 1810–1849; Moszkowski, Moritz, b. 1854.

Russian: Glinka, M. Ivanovich, 1803–1857, founder of national school; Dargomijsky, A. Sergeivich, 1813–1869; Rubinstein, Anton, 1829–1894; Borodin, A. Porfyrievich, 1834–1887; Moussorgsky, M. Petrovich, 1835–1881; Balakirev, M. Alexeivich, b. 1836; Tschaikovsky, Peter Ilich, 1840–1893; Rimsky-Korsakov, N. Andreievich, 1844–1908; Glazunov, A. Constantinovich, b. 1865.

Norwegian: The violinist Bull, Ole, 1810–1880; Kjerulf, Halfdan, 1815–1868; Svendsen, J. S., b. 1840; Grieg, Edvard Hagerup, 1843–1907.

Danish: Gade, Niels W., 1817–1890.

Sweden: Wennerbert, G., 1817–1901, song writer.

American: Emmett, D. D., started “negro minstrels,” 1815–1904; Foster, Stephen C., 1826–1864, song writer; Eichberg, Julius, 1824–1893, founded Boston Conservatory of Music; Buck, Dudley, 1839–1909; MacDowell, Edward Alexander, 1861–1908. For notices of other modern composers and their tendencies—see Music, Recent Music (Vol. 19, p. 82).

Musical HistoriansFamous musical historians and writers on music, whose biographies are in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, are: Aristoxenus, 4th century B.C.; Praetorius, M., 1571–1621; Perusch, J. C., 1667–1752; Barnard, John, 17th century; Hawkins, Sir John, 1710–1789; Gerbert, M., 1720–1793; Burney, Ch., 1726–1814; Gerber, 1746–1819; Forkel, J. N., 1749–1818; Baini, G., 1775–1844; Novello, V., 1781–1861; Callcott, J. W., 1766–1821; Fetis, F. J., 1784–1871; Chorley, H. F., 1808–1872; Chappell, Wm., 1809–1888; Dwight, John S., 1813–1893; Ambros, A. W., 1816–1876; Grove, Sir George, 1820–1900.

“In the beginning,” said Hans von Bülow, “was rhythm,” and as Rhythm (Vol. 23, p. 277) is the skeleton of every musical phrase and formula, the interesting article by Donald Tovey on rhythm in music may well serve as an introduction to the other subjects in this section. Passing to the elements, the articles Sound, Diatonic Scale (Vol. 25, p. 448) and Plain Song (Vol. 21, p. 705) should be read. In the former article the physical basis of the modern scale is determined, while in the latter an account is given of the modes which for centuries were the vehicles of musical expression. In the article Musical Notation (Vol. 19, p. 86) the steps by which the present system of recording music was reached are noted, and in Pitch, Musical (Vol. 21, p. 660), the whole of this interesting and vexed subject is reviewed by Alfred J. Hipkins, a high authority, formerly hon. curator of the Royal College of Music. The article Melody (Vol. 18, p. 96) contains in addition to a discussion of the terms a series of useful definitions (e.g., conjunct and disjunct motion) and several musical examples. This brings us to the main articles of this section—Counterpoint (Vol. 7, p. 315), Harmony (Vol. 13, p. 1) and Instrumentation (Vol. 14, p. 651). All are by Donald Tovey and all are brilliant. In particular the article Harmony deserves the most careful study, especially interesting being the sections Tonality and Key-relationship. The article on counterpoint is mainly a definition of the principles involved and is introductory both to Harmony and to Contrapuntal Forms. In Instrumentation the question of colour is discussed from the historical and aesthetic aspects, accompanied by valuable analysis of the colour schemes of various composers from the choral writers of the “Golden Age” down to Wagner and Richard Strauss.

TheoristsFamous theorists who have helped to establish the grammar of music are the following: Terpander, 7th century B.C., founder of Greek music (Vol. 26, p. 647); Pythagoras, 6th century, B.C., said to have discovered numerical relation governing the harmonic series (Vol. 22, p. 699); Alypius, 3rd century B.C. (Vol. 1, p. 776); Aristides, Quintilianus, 3rd century A.D.; Hucbald, c. 840–930, inventor of new notation (Vol. 13, p. 847); Guido of Arezzo, c. 995–1050, “Beatus Guido, inventor musicae,” (Vol. 12, p. 687); Agricola, Martin, c. 1500–1556; Zarlino, G., 1517–1590, fixed the diatonic scale; Artusi, G. M., 16th century, opposed monodist revolt; Fux, J. J., wrote the famous Gradus ad Parnassum, Rameau, J. P., 1683–1764, to whom the first systematic theory of harmony is due; Albrechtsberger, J. G., 1736–1809, the teacher of Beethoven; Reicha, A. J., 1770–1836; Richter, E. F. E., 1808–1879; Curwen, J., 1817–1880, inventor of tonic sol-fa system; Berlioz Hector, whose text book on instrumentation is classic. On all these separate articles will be found in the Britannica.

(3) MUSICAL FORMS

Contrapuntal FormsIn making a detailed study of any particular form, reference should be made to the critical sections of the biographies of those masters who have done most towards its development. As has been seen in the historical section of this chapter, the Contrapuntal Forms (Vol. 7, p. 41) were the first to attain to a high standard of organization in the hands of such masters as Orlando Lasso (Vol. 16, p. 237) and Palestrina (Vol. 20, p. 627). The articles Mass (Vol. 17, p. 849), Motet (Vol. 18, p. 905), Madrigal (Vol. 17, p. 295), Canon (Vol. 5, p. 190), Chorale (Vol. 6, p. 269), cover the ground of early choral music. In tracing their development reference should be made to the articles on Bach, J. S. (Vol. 3, p. 127), Beethoven (Vol. 3, p. 649), Brahms (Vol. 4, p. 390). Oratorio (Vol. 20, p. 161) and Cantata (Vol. 5, p. 209) had their beginning in the work of the followers of Monteverde in the early 17th century, and their development may be traced in the work of Cavaliere (Vol. 5, p. 563), Carissimi (Vol. 5, p. 338), Purcell (Vol. 22, p. 658), Bach (Vol. 3, p. 127), Handel (Vol. 2, p. 912), Brahms (Vol. 4 p. 390), César Franck (Vol. 11, p. 3), and Sir C. Hubert Parry (Vol. 20, p. 865).

Suite and SonataIn instrumental music, the Suite (Vol. 26, p. 51), of which Boccherini (Vol. 4, p. 105) was the last master, most nearly foreshadowed the Sonata (Sonata Forms, Vol. 25, p. 394), and together they tell the tale of the development of absolute music up to modern experiments in the more elastic Symphonic Poem (Vol. 26, p. 289) of which Liszt (Vol. 16, p. 780) was the first to see the possibilities. In addition to the articles Sonata and Sonata Forms the reader should carefully study that part of the article Beethoven beginning on page 647 of Vol. 3; also the article Harmony, Key Relationships (Vol. 13, p. 5) which contains analyses of several striking key systems, and further reference should also be made to the articles Variations (Vol. 27, p. 912), Symphony (Vol. 26, p. 290).

Programme MusicTo the Romantic movement of the early part of the 19th century may be traced the attempt to escape from the apparent restrictions of the Sonata Form, and Schumann’s (Vol. 24, p. 384) many Fantasie-Stücke and Chopin’s lyrical compositions (Vol. 6, p. 268) are prototypes in little of the tendencies of the time. On a larger canvas are the Ton-dramen of Liszt and the symphonic poems and the elaborate programme music of modern composers such as Richard Strauss (Vol. 25, p. 1003); and though Brahms (Vol. 4, p. 389) showed clearly enough that the classical sonata form was a framework sufficiently elastic to hold the most elaborate and modern ideas, the direction in which music has tended is towards the Symphonic Poem in which, by such devices as the transformation of themes and the Leitmotif (Opera, Vol. 20, p. 125) a still greater elasticity is sought in form with a greater continuity of idea in substance. See Programme Music (Vol. 22, p. 424).

OperaSupplementing the article Opera (Vol. 20, p. 121) are several which should be consulted. Aria (Vol. 2, p. 489), Overture (Vol. 20, p. 384), and especially Gluck (Vol. 12, p. 139), Mozart (Vol. 18, p. 951), Weber (Vol. 28, p. 457), and Wagner (Vol. 28, p. 237). These, with the biographical notices of operatic composers, which include almost every Italian composer from the days of Peri (Vol. 21, p. 144), and French composers from Lully (Vol. 17, p. 121), give a mass of information bearing on the development of this popular form.

SongSong (Vol. 25, p. 400), the oldest of art forms, and almost the last to be rescued from the too narrow formalism of which the classical Aria (Vol. 2, p. 489) is the beautiful example, is so much the most generally popular that the article on it in the Britannica will probably be more widely read than any other on musical subjects. Written by W. A. J. Ford, a scholarly musician and teacher of singing at the Royal College of Music (London), it provides a brilliant survey of the evolution of the song from its earliest beginnings. In connection with it the reader will find much to interest him in the biographical notices of two famous troubadours of the 13th and 14th centuries, Adam de la Hale (Vol. 1, p. 171) and Machaut, G. De (Vol. 17, p. 233); of Monteverde (Vol. 18, p. 778), the pioneer of the monodist revolt at the end of the 16th century, of Scarlatti, Alessandro (Vol. 24, p. 302), 17th century, who perfected the aria form, of Purcell, Henry (Vol. 22, p. 658), the great English composer of the 17th century, of Johann Sebastian Bach (Vol. 3, p. 126) 18th century, of Schubert (Vol. 24, p. 380), the creator of the modern song, of Schumann (Vol. 24, p. 384) who brought a yet greater intimacy into the form, of Hugo Wolf (Vol. 28, p. 771), the most clairvoyant of song writers, of Sir Hubert Parry (Vol. 20, p. 865), and Sir Charles Villiers Stanford (Vol. 25, p. 773), who have respectively done the best modern work in the English and Irish tradition, and of the American MacDowell (Vol. 17, p. 214). Reference should also be made to the articles Melody (Vol. 18, p. 96), Accompaniment (Vol. 1, p. 122), Rhythm (Vol. 23, p. 277). Suggestive also are the articles Ballads (Vol. 3, p. 264), Poetry (Vol. 21, p. 889). On the technique of singing the article Voice (Vol. 28, p. 172) by Dr. J. G. McKendrick, will be found very helpful, especially the section on the Physiology of Voice Production.

(4) MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

One branch of the subject yet remains, that of musical instruments. Here the editor of the Britannica had the advantage of the assistance of Miss Kathleen Schlesinger (author of The Instruments of the Orchestra, and the greatest authority on the subject), who contributed practically all of the articles in the book on musical instruments. A list of them is given below, classified under their most convenient groupings. From these articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannica the reader will get a full account of every known musical instrument whether modern or ancient, with its compass, and scale, and of its connection with other instruments of the same class; so that the evolution of every type is clearly brought out. As a preliminary to a general study of the subject, the articles Orchestra (Vol. 20, p. 168), and Instrumentation (Vol. 14, p. 651) may conveniently be read. In the former Miss Schlesinger gives a summary of the development of the various classes of instruments and of their concerted use. In the article Instrumentation, on the other hand, Donald Tovey illustrates the principles which govern their use. This article closes with an interesting survey of the orchestral schemes at different periods in the history of the art. The following classified list of separate articles on musical instruments in the Britannica, shows how very completely this work covers the field:

Stringed Instruments (Vol. 25, p. 1038).

Strings Plucked by Fingers or Plectrum: Asor; Balalaika; Banjo; Barbiton; Chelys; Cithara; Citole; Cittern; Epigonion; Guitar; Harp; Harp-Lute; Kinnor; Kissar; Lute; Lyre; Mandoline; Nanga; Pandura; Psaltery; Rebab; Rotta; Sambuca; Theorbo; Trigonon; Zither. Strings Set in Vibration by Friction of the Bow: Crowd; Double Bass; Fiddle; Geige; Guitar-Fiddle; Gusla; Nail Violin; Philomel; Ravanastron; Rebab; Rebec; Tromba Marina; Vielle; Viol; Viola; Violin; Violoncello. Strings Struck by Hammers or Tangents: Clavecin; Clavicembalo; Clavichord; Clavicytherium; Dulcimer; Harmonichord; Harpsichord; Pianoforte; Spinet; Virginal. Strings Set in Vibration by Friction of a Wheel: Hurdy-Gurdy; Organistrum. Strings Set in Vibration by the Wind: Aeolian Harp. Appliances: Bow; Monochord; Mute; Mouthpiece; Keyboard; Sordino.

Wind Instruments (mouth blown) (Vol. 28, p. 709.)

Wood Wind.

The Pipe Class: Eunuch Flute; Fife; Flageolet; Flute; Nay; Piccolo; Pipe and Tabor; Recorder; Syrinx. Single Reed Class (cylindrical bore): Reed Instruments; Arghoul; Aulos; Bass Clarinet; Basset Horn; Batyphone; Clarinet; Pedal Clarinet. Double Reed Class (conical bore): Reed Instruments; Aulos; Bassoon; Bombard; Contrafagotto; Cor Anglais; Oboe; Pommer; Shawm; Clarina; Holztrompete; Cromorne; Rackett; Saxophone; Sordino; Tibia. To reed instruments also belong the Bagpipe Class: Askaules; Bagpipe; Biniou; Chorus; Drone; Platerspiel; Symphonia.

Brass Wind.

Bombardon; Buccina; Bugle; Cornet; Euphonium; Helicon; Horn; Lituus; Ophicleide; Sackbut; Saxhorn; Serpent; Trombone; Trumpet; Tuba; to which may be added, though not of brass or metal: Alpenhorn; Oliphant; Shofar; see also Mouthpiece; Mute; Valves.

Wind Instruments (mechanically blown).

Accordion; Barrel-Organ; Concertina; Harmonium; Orchestrion; Organ; Physharmonica; Portative Organ; Positive Organ; Regal; to which, though mouth blown, may be added Cheng. See also Free Reed Vibration; Keyboard.

Instruments of Percussion.

Sounding a Sensible Note: Bell; Bumbulum; Carillon; Glockenspiel; Gong; Harmonica; Jews’ Harp; Musical Box; Parsifal Bell-Instrument; Xylophone. Not Sounding a Sensible Note: Castanets; Cymbals; Chinese Pavillon; Drum; Kettle Drum; Nacaire; Sistrum; Tambourine; Timbrel; Tom-Tom; Triangle; Tympanon.