Reader's Guide — 11th Edition

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Chapter XXFor Engineers

What “Engineering” Includes

Contents

  1. Mathematical Articles
  2. Articles for Civil Engineers
  3. Railways and Transportation
  4. Structural Engineering
  5. For the Mechanical Engineer
  6. For the Electrical Engineer
  7. American Practice in Mining
  8. The Metallurgical Section
  9. Biographies of Engineers

The history of a word will sometimes supply the key to the gradual development of an art. “Engineering” was originally used to describe a mere branch of military science, the construction of fortifications and the trenching and sapping needed for their capture. Then about a century and a half ago the use of the phrase “civil engineering” came into use to indicate the broadening of the engineer’s functions to civil pursuits, but even then it served for a long time chiefly to describe surveying, road-making and bridge building. To-day, the specialized knowledge of engineers of one kind or another directs or facilitates every branch of industry. Consider for a moment the handling of iron, which, as the Britannica article Iron and Steel shows, has become the most indispensable of all substances save air and water, because we can find no substitute for it that possesses its strength, the hardness and the pliability we can give to it, and its magnetic properties, upon which all our electrical work depends. The mining engineer is concerned with the ore, the mechanical engineer with the machinery employed in its treatment; the transportation of the finished iron or steel depends upon the skill of the engineers who construct railroads and ships; the structural engineer shapes our buildings from the girders and erects them on the sites indicated by the surveying engineer; the sanitary engineer makes them wholesome, and the electrical engineer provides them with the many convenient appliances we need. Various primitive races have believed that the earth is supported upon the back of a tortoise, an elephant, or a fish; but when we begin to look into the origin of the surroundings we have made for ourselves, we cannot carry our examination very far before we find that almost everything we possess begins with a blueprint.

It seems a paradox, and yet it is true, that the more a man’s profession tends to specialization, the more help he can get from the comprehensiveness of the Britannica. He finds it necessary to dig so deep that the shaft he sinks must perforce be of narrow diameter, limiting his daily vision to but a small circle of the broad sky above him. The engineer of each class has his own text books, but at any moment his work may bring him into temporary relation with allied subjects which they do not cover, and in connection with which he may need trustworthy information. There is certainly no other book which surveys so authoritatively and minutely as does the Britannica the whole field of applied science. The services rendered by the 73 engineering experts—German, American, English, French and Italian—who collaborated in the production of the work are not to be measured only by the articles they wrote; for the advice and assistance many of them gave the editors in planning the book as a whole, ensured such treatment as an engineer would desire of many subjects indirectly connected with his work.

Mathematical ArticlesThe engineer will naturally turn first to the mathematical articles, which may be described as text-books of the most concise and useful nature, written by leading mathematicians of the age. Algebra (Vol. 1, p. 599) is by Dr. Sheppard, and G. B. Mathews, formerly professor of mathematics, University College of North Wales; Algebraic Forms (Vol. 1, p. 620) by Major P. A. Macmahon, formerly president of the London Mathematical Society; Geometry (Vol. 11, p. 675), Euclidean, Projective, Descriptive, by Dr. Henrici, professor of mathematics, Central Technical College of the City and Guilds of London Institute; Analytical, by E. B. Elliott, Waynflete professor of pure mathematics, Oxford; Line, by B. A. W. Russell, author of Foundations of Geometry, etc., and Dr. A. N. Whitehead of Trinity College, Cambridge; Axioms, by Dr. Whitehead; Trigonometry (Vol. 27, p. 271) by Dr. E. W. Hobson of Cambridge University; Surveying (Vol. 26, p. 142), Geodetic Triangulation, Levelling, Topographical Surveys, and Geographical Surveying, by Sir Thomas Holdich, formerly superintendent of Frontier Surveys, India; Nautical, by Vice-Admiral A. M. Field, R.N., author of Hydrographical Surveying, etc.; Geodesy (Vol. 11, p. 607) by Col. A. R. Clarke of the British ordinance survey, and Prof. F. R. Helmert of the University of Berlin; Logarithm (Vol. 16, p. 868) by Dr. J. W. L. Glaisher, editor of the Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics; Mechanics (Vol. 17, p. 955), Statics, Kinetics, by Dr. Horace Lamb, professor of mathematics, University of Manchester; Theory of Structures, Theory of Machines, Applied Dynamics, by Dr. W. J. M. Rankine, late professor of civil engineering, Glasgow University, and W. E. Dalby, professor of civil and mechanical engineering, City and Guilds of London Institute; Dynamics (Vol. 8, p. 756) by Professor Lamb; Differences, Calculus of (Vol. 8, p. 223), by Dr. W. F. Sheppard; Infinitesimal Calculus (Vol. 14, p. 535) by Dr. A. E. H. Love, secretary of the London Mathematical Society; Variations, Calculus of (Vol. 27, p. 915), by Dr. Love; Quaternions (Vol. 22, p. 718) by Alexander McAulay, professor of mathematics and physics, University of Tasmania; Diagram (Vol. 8, p. 146), by Dr. James Clerk Maxwell, the noted physicist; Mensuration (Vol. 18, p. 135) by Dr. Sheppard; Table, Mathematical (Vol 26, p. 325), by Dr. J. W. L. Glaisher; Units, Physical (Vol. 27, p. 738), by Dr. J. A Fleming, professor of electrical engineering, University of London; Units, Dimensions of (Vol. 27, p. 736), by Sir Joseph Larmor, secretary of the Royal Society, England; and Calculating Machines (Vol. 4, p. 972), with 24 illustrations, is by Professor Henrici.

These admirable treatises as well as the article Drawing, Drawing-Office work (Vol. 8, p. 556), by Joseph G. Horner, will be useful to all engineers, and in the special field of civil engineering the following partial list of articles will convey some idea of the scope of the material to which the professional man has immediate access.

Articles for Civil EngineersBridges (Vol. 4, p. 533), with 72 illustrations, diagrams, etc., is a thorough discussion of the subject by Dr. William C. Unwin, emeritus professor of engineering, Central Technical College, City and Guilds of London Institute, author of Wrought Iron Bridges and Roofs, etc. This article covers the whole theory of bridge design, and describes all the typical structures from the timber Pons Sublicius of ancient Rome, the bridge Horatius defended, to the Manhattan Bridge over the East River at New York. Roads and Streets (Vol. 23, p. 388); River Engineering (Vol. 23, p. 374), with 26 illustrations, by the late L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, professor of civil engineering, University College, London, and author of Rivers and Canals, etc.; Jetty (Vol. 15, p. 359), with 6 illustrations, and Pier (Vol. 21, p. 588), illustrated, also by Prof. Vernon-Harcourt; Dredge and Dredging (Vol. 8, p. 562), with 13 illustrations, by William Hunter, consulting engineer for Waterworks to Crown agents for the Colonies.

Hydraulics (Vol. 14, p. 35), with 213 illustrations, is by Prof. W. C. Unwin—an article in which the whole theory and practice of water-power, including discussions of water-motors and turbines, are brought fully up to date by the designer of the first water-motors at Niagara, the section dealing with hydraulic machines occupying 25 pages; Hydromechanics (Vol. 14, p. 115) by Sir Alfred George Greenhill, formerly professor of mathematics in the Ordnance College, Woolwich; Ventilation (Vol. 27, p. 1008), illustrated, by James Bartlett; Water Supply (Vol. 28, p. 387), with 20 illustrations, diagrams, and maps, by Dr. G. F. Deacon, formerly engineer-in-chief for the Liverpool Water Supply; Aqueduct, Modern Construction (Vol. 2, p. 244), by E. P. Hill; Sewerage (Vol. 24, p. 735), with 29 illustrations, by James Bartlett; Irrigation (Vol 14, p. 841).

Canal (Vol. 5, p. 168), by Sir E. Leader Williams, chief engineer of Manchester Ship Canal during construction, is an interesting article. There are also separate articles on great engineering undertakings, such as Panama Canal (Vol. 20, p. 667); Manchester Ship Canal (Vol. 17, p. 550) by Sir E. Leader Williams; Suez Canal (Vol. 26, p. 22). It will surprise many readers to learn that the project of a ship canal across Central America was considered as early as 1550, when a book demonstrating its feasibility was published in Portugal. Only a year later the King of Spain was strongly urged, in a memorial presented by De Gomara, the Spanish historian, to undertake the work.

Railways and TransportationTunnel (Vol. 27, p. 399), with many plans and illustrations, by H. A. Carson, in charge of designing and constructing the Boston Subway; Dock (Vol. 8, p. 353), with illustrations and plans; Caisson (Vol. 4, p. 957); Breakwater (Vol. 4, p. 475), with 16 illustrations; Harbour (Vol. 12, p. 935), illustrated; Reclamation of Land (Vol. 22, p. 954), with 13 illustrations. The last five articles are by Professor Vernon-Harcourt; Lighthouse (Vol. 16, p. 627), with 59 illustrations, by W. T. Douglass, who erected the Eddystone and Bishop Rock Lighthouses, and Nicholas G. Gedye, chief engineer to the Tyne Improvement Commission; Shipbuilding (Vol. 24, p. 922), with 125 illustrations—a complete treatise on the subject by Sir Philip Watts, director of naval construction for the British Navy; Traction (Vol. 27, p. 119), illustrated, by Prof. Louis Duncan, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Tramway (Vol. 27, p. 159), illustrated, by Emile Garcke, managing director of the British Electric Traction Co., Ltd.; Railways (Vol. 22, p. 819), a magnificent composite article, fully illustrated, in which the Introduction and the sections on Construction and Rolling Stock are by H. M. Ross, editor of The Times Engineering Supplement; General Statistics and Financial Organization, by Ray Morris, formerly of the Railway Age Gazette, New York, and author of Railroad Administration; Economics and Legislation, by Arthur T. Hadley, president of Yale University; American Railway Legislation, by Prof. Frank H. Dixon, of Dartmouth College, author of State Railroad Control; Accident Statistics, by B. B. Adams, associate editor, Railway Age Gazette; Intra Urban Railways, by W. B. Parsons, formerly chief engineer, Rapid Transit Commission, New York, and Light Railways, by C. E. Webber of the Royal Engineers, and Emile Garcke. No book on the subject has ever before contained so great a collection of expert knowledge as this article presents.

Structural EngineeringIn regard to construction, engineers will find most valuable for reference and study the elaborate treatises Strength of Materials (Vol. 25, p. 1007), with 42 diagrams and illustrations, by Prof. J. A. Ewing, and Elasticity (Vol. 9, p. 141), with 32 diagrams, by Prof. A. E. H. Love. Notable articles in this connection are Iron and Steel (Vol. 14, p. 801), illustrated, by Dr. H. M. Howe, professor of metallurgy, Columbia University; and Steel Construction (Vol. 25, p. 861), illustrated. It is interesting to note that early in the 19th century a tall shot-tower was built in New York city by erecting a braced cage of iron and filling in the panels with masonry. Stone (Vol. 25, p. 958); Masonry (Vol. 17, p. 841), with 18 illustrations; Brickwork (Vol. 4, p. 521), with 15 illustrations—these four articles by James Bartlett, lecturer on construction at King’s College, London; Cement (Vol. 5, p. 653), illustrated, by Bertram Blount, hon. president, Cement Section of International Association for Testing Materials, Budapest; Concrete (Vol. 6, p. 835), with 16 illustrations, by F. E. Wentworth-Shields, dock engineer of the London and South-Western Railway; Mortar (Vol. 18, p. 875); Foundations (Vol. 10, p. 733), with 13 illustrations; Timber (Vol. 26, p. 978); Roofs (Vol. 23, p. 697), with 23 illustrations; Scaffold (Vol. 24, p. 279) illustrated; Shoring (Vol. 24, p. 1004), illustrated—the last six by James Bartlett.

For the Mechanical EngineerThe Engineering Section of the new Britannica provides an equal wealth of authentic material for members of other branches of the profession. It is impossible to indicate the exact lines of demarcation between these branches, and many articles are of use to all engineers alike; but in the special field of mechanical engineering there are Thermodynamics (Vol. 26, p. 808) by Dr. H. L. Callendar, professor of physics, Royal College of Science, London; Steam Engine (Vol. 25, p. 818) by Prof. Ewing, more than 30 pages long, with 68 illustrations. This article, with its up-to-date section on turbines, is one of the many in the engineering department of the Britannica which have been said by technical critics to merit separate publication as text-books. But such articles are all the more useful because they form part of one great library of universal knowledge. Other mechanical articles are Air Engine (Vol. 1, p. 443), illustrated, also by Professor Ewing; Gas Engine (Vol. 11, p. 495), illustrated, by Dugald Clerk, inventor of the Clerk Cycle Gas Engine; Oil Engine (Vol. 20, p. 35), illustrated, also by Dugald Clerk; Boiler (Vol. 4, p. 141), with 20 illustrations, by James T. Milton, chief engineer surveyor to Lloyd’s Registry of Shipping, and Joseph G. Horner, author of Plating and Boiler Making; Injector (Vol. 14, p. 570); Water Motors (Vol. 28, p. 382), illustrated, by T. H. Beare, Regius professor of engineering in the University of Edinburgh; Windmill (Vol. 28, p. 710), illustrated, by Professor Unwin; Fuel (Vol. 11, p. 274), illustrated, Solid Fuels by Hilary Bauermann, of the Ordnance College, Woolwich; Liquid Fuel, by Sir James Fortescue-Flannery, formerly president of the Institute of Marine Engineers; Gaseous Fuel, by Dr. Georg Lunge, professor of technical chemistry at the Zurich Polytechnic; Gas, Gas for Fuel and Power (Gas producers) (Vol. 11, p. 490), illustrated, also by Professor Lunge.

Power Transmission (Vol. 22, p. 224), illustrated, Mechanical, by Professor Dalby; Hydraulic, by Edward B. Ellington, chief engineer of the General Hydraulic Power Co., Ltd.; Pneumatic, by A. de W. Foote, superintendent of the North Star Mining Co., California; Pulley (Vol. 22, p. 641), illustrated, by Dr. Ernest G. Coker, professor of mechanical Engineering in the City and Guilds of London Technical College; Pump (Vol. 22, p. 645), illustrated; Brake (Vol. 4, p. 413), illustrated; Tool (Vol. 27, p. 14), with 79 illustrations, by Joseph G. Horner; Cranes (Vol. 7, p. 368), with 21 illustrations, by Walter Pitt; Elevators (Vol. 9, p. 263), illustrated, by G. F. Zimmer, author of Mechanical Handling of Material; Lubricants (Vol. 17, p. 89) by R. M. Deeley, joint author of Lubrication and Lubricants; Pneumatic Despatch (Vol. 21, p. 865) by H. R. Kempe, electrician to the General Post Office, London; Gyroscope and Gyrostat (Vol. 12, p. 769), illustrated, by Sir Alfred Greenhill; Motor Vehicles (Vol. 18, p. 914), with 37 illustrations—Light, by the Hon. C. S. Rolls, late managing director of the Rolls Royce Co., Ltd.; Heavy Commercial Vehicles, by Edward S. Smith, editor of The Commercial Motor; Railways, Locomotive Power (Vol. 22, p. 842) by Professor W. E. Dalby.

For the Electrical EngineerThe key article describing the general principles of electrical engineering is Electricity Supply (Vol. 9, p. 192), illustrated, by Emile Garcke, but at the immediate service of the electrical engineer there also stand Dynamo (Vol. 8, p. 764), with 42 illustrations, by C. C. Hawkins, author of The Dynamo; Power Transmission, Electrical (Vol. 22, p. 233) by Dr. Louis Bell, chief engineer, Electric Power Transmission Dept., General Electric Co.; Conduction, Electric (Vol. 6, p. 855), Conduction in Solids by Professor Fleming; in Liquids, by W. C. D. Whetham; in Gases, by Sir J. J. Thomson, a Nobel prize-winner and professor of experimental physics at Cambridge; Electrolysis (Vol. 9, p. 217) by W. C. D. Whetham; Electrokinetics (Vol. 9, p. 210), illustrated; Electrostatics (Vol. 9, p. 240); Electromagnetism (Vol. 9, p. 226), illustrated; Units, Physical, Electrical Units (Vols. 27, p. 740); Galvanometer (Vol. 11, p. 428), illustrated; Electrometer (Vol. 9, p. 234), illustrated; Amperemeter (Vol. 1, p. 879), illustrated; Voltmeter (Vol. 28, p. 206), illustrated; Ohmmeter (Vol. 20, p. 34), illustrated; Wattmeter (Vol. 28, p. 419)—all of these by Professor Fleming; Potentiometer (Vol. 22, p. 205); Accumulator (Vol. 1, p. 126), with 24 illustrations and diagrams, by Walter Hibbert, of the London Polytechnic; Transformers (Vol. 27, p. 173), with 15 illustrations and diagrams, and Wheatstone’s Bridge (Vol. 28, p. 584), illustrated, by Professor Fleming; Motors, Electric (Vol. 18, p. 910), by Dr. Louis Bell; Meter, Electric, (Vol. 18, p. 291), by Professor Fleming; Lighting, Electric (Vol. 16, p. 659), with 16 illustrations, by Professor Fleming, and a chapter on its commercial aspects, methods of charging, wiring of houses, testing meters, etc., by Emile Garcke; Telegraph (Vol. 26, p. 510), fully illustrated, Land and Submarine Telegraphy, by H. R. Kempe; Wireless Telegraphy, by Professor Fleming, and Commercial Aspects, by Emile Garcke; Telephone (Vol. 26, p. 547), illustrated, by H. R. Kempe and Emile Garcke; Traction, Electric (Vol. 27, p. 120), illustrated, by Professor Duncan. An admirable historical sketch of electricity will be found in Electricity (Vol. 9, p. 179), by Professor Fleming, which contains also an account of the development of electric theory.

American Practice in MiningIt is typical of the policy pursued in making the new Britannica that the Editor placed the mining section in the hands of American experts, since they are universally regarded as the best in the world. This entire section is a worthy monument to American learning and practice.

The key-article Mining (Vol. 18, p. 528), fully illustrated, is by Dr. Henry Smith Munroe, professor of mining in Columbia University. This covers every branch of the subject, but further discussion of its special phases is continued in Mineral Deposits (Vol. 18, p. 504) by Dr. James F. Kemp, professor of geology, Columbia University; Quarrying (Vol. 22, p. 712) by Dr. F. J. H. Merrill, formerly state geologist of New York; Ore-Dressing (Vol. 20, p. 238), illustrated, by Dr. R. H. Richards, professor of mining and metallurgy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Shaft-Sinking (Vol. 24, p. 766), illustrated; Boring (Vol. 4, p. 251), illustrated; Blasting (Vol. 4, p. 44), illustrated—the last three by Robert Peele, professor of mining in Columbia University.

The Metallurgical SectionMetallurgy (Vol. 18, p. 203) describes in outline the general sequence of operations. Assaying (Vol. 18, p. 776) is by Andrew A. Blair, formerly chief chemist U. S. Geological Survey. See also Metal (Vol. 18, p. 198). Metalography (Vol. 18, p. 202), illustrated, is an account of the new and important method of microscopical examination of alloys and metals by Sir William Chandler Roberts-Austen; and Francis H. Neville. Alloys (Vol. 1, p. 704), with unique photomicrographs of alloys and metals, is also by the authors of the article Metallography. Annealing, Hardening and Tempering (Vol. 2, p. 70), illustrated, is by Joseph G. Horner, who also writes Forging (Vol. 10, p. 663), which has 19 illustrations, Founding (Vol. 10, p. 743), with 11 illustrations, and Rolling-Mill (Vol. 23, p. 468), with 8 illustrations. The material on Fuel has already been mentioned. Furnace (Vol. 11, p. 358) describes and illustrates all the latest designs. Welding (Vol. 28, p. 501) is by J. G. Horner and Elihu Thomson, who writes on his own invention, Electric Welding.

The mining engineer or metallurgist will have in the new Britannica constantly at his elbow a complete series of articles dealing with the mining and metallurgy of all minerals and metals. Professor Howe’s exhaustive article Iron and Steel has already been noted in another part of this chapter. A few of the other important articles are Copper (Vol. 7, p. 103); Gold (Vol. 12, p. 192); Silver (Vol. 25, p. 112); Lead (Vol. 16, p. 314); Tin (Vol. 26, p. 995); Zinc (Vol. 28, p. 981); Manganese (Vol. 17, p. 569); Aluminum (Vol. 1, p. 767) by E. J. Ristori, member of Council, Institute of Metals. Safety-Lamp (Vol. 23, p. 998) is written by Hilary Bauermann. The latest mining statistics of all countries are to be found under their respective headings.

Biographies of EngineersMilitary men are familiar with the lives and deeds of great soldiers; lovers of art and literature know something of the careers of their favorites; but as a rule the engineer knows little or nothing about the lives of the great ornaments of his profession, the splendid heroes of peace who have done much more than the soldier and the artist to create the world of to-day. The reason for this is that engineering biographies are very scarce, and in this connection the new Britannica fills a positive gap in the engineer’s library. There are considerably more than 100 biographies of great engineers, living and dead, written in the most interesting fashion by authoritative contributors. Among these articles are Watt, James (Vol. 28, p. 414) by Professor Ewing; Arkwright, Sir Richard (Vol. 2, p. 556); Stephenson, George (Vol. 25, p. 888); Bessemer, Sir Henry (Vol. 3, p. 823); Whitworth, Sir Joseph (Vol. 28, p. 616); Rennie, John (Vol. 23, p. 101); Lesseps, Ferdinand de (Vol. 16, p. 494) by Henri G. S. A. de Blowitz; Eads, James B. (Vol. 8, p. 789); Edison, Thomas A. (Vol. 8, p. 946); Ericsson, John (Vol. 9, p. 740); Maxim, Sir Hiram (Vol. 17, p. 918); Roebling, John A. (Vol. 23, p. 450); Siemens, Sir William (Vol. 25, p. 47) by Professor Ewing; Telford, Thomas (Vol. 26, p. 573); McAdam, John L. (Vol. 17, p. 190), and Trevithick, Richard (Vol. 27, p. 256).

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO ENGINEERS (642 articles)